#security

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Why two passwords do not necessarily make two factors

Multifactor authentication checks evidence from different categories, such as something you know and something you possess. Two passwords both belong to the knowledge category, so they do not create the same separation. The aim is to make one compromised type of evidence insufficient for access.

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What a digital signature verifies

A digital signature links a message to a private signing key and allows verification with the corresponding public key. Changing the signed data causes verification to fail. The signature supports authenticity and integrity, but connecting that key to a real person or organisation requires an additional basis for trust.

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How encryption makes data unreadable without the right key

Encryption transforms readable data into ciphertext using an algorithm and a key. Someone with the appropriate decryption key can recover the original information. Strong encryption protects content under its assumptions, but it does not automatically hide every detail, such as when a message was sent or its approximate size.

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What a cryptographic hash tells you about a file

A cryptographic hash converts data into a fixed-length value designed to change unpredictably when the input changes. Comparing hashes can help check whether two files contain the same bytes. A hash is not encryption: it does not store a recoverable secret version of the original file.

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